From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In rhetoric, parrhesia is a figure of speech described as: “to speak candidly or to ask forgiveness for so speaking”.[1] This Ancient Greek word has three different forms, as related by Michel Foucault. Parrhesia is a noun, meaning “free speech”. Parrhesiazomai is a verb, meaning “to use parrhesia”. Parrhesiastes is a noun, meaning one who uses parrhesia, for example “one who speaks the truth to power”.[2]
Etymology
The term parrhesia is borrowed from the Greek παρρησία parrhēsía (πᾶν “all” and ῥῆσις “utterance, speech”) meaning literally “to speak everything” and by extension “to speak freely”, “to speak boldly”, or “boldness”.[3] The term first appears in Greek literature, when used by Euripides, and may be found in ancient Greek texts throughout the end of the fourth century and during fifth century B.C.[2]It implies not only freedom of speech, but the obligation to speak the truth for the common good, even at personal risk.
Usage in ancient Greece
In ancient Greece, rhetoric and parrhesia were understood to be in opposition to each other through the dialogues written by Plato. There are two major philosophies during this period, one being Sophistry and one being Dialectic.
Sophistry is most commonly associated with the use of rhetoric or means of persuasion to teach or persuade an audience. In its opposition is the practice of dialectic, supported by Plato and his mentor Socrates, which uses dialogue to break apart complex issues in search of absolute truth or knowledge. In Plato’s writings, specifically Gorgias, the term parrhesia is more closely associated with dialectic, meaning that it is “free speech” and not rhetoric or manipulation.
Parrhesia was a fundamental component of the democracy of Classical Athens. In assemblies and the courts Athenians were free to say almost anything, and in the theatre, playwrights such as Aristophanes made full use of the right to ridicule whomever they chose.[4] Elsewhere there were limits to what might be said; freedom to discuss politics, morals, religion, or to criticize people would depend on context: by whom it was made, and when, and how, and where.[5]
If one was seen as immoral, or held views that went contrary to popular opinion, then there were great risks involved in making use of such an unbridled freedom of speech, as Socrates found out when he was sentenced to death for not adoring deities worshiped by the Athenians and for corrupting the young.[4]
Cynic philosophers
Main article: Cynicism (philosophy)
Parrhesia was a central concept for the Cynic philosophers, as epitomized in the shameless speech of Diogenes of Sinope.[6]
Epicureans
Main article: Epicureans
Parrhesia was also used by Epicureans in a friendly manner of frank criticism during teaching Epicurean philosophy and offering psychotherapy.[7]
New Testament use
A related use of parrhesia is found in the Greek New Testament, where it means “bold speech”, the ability of believers to hold their own in discourse before political and religious authorities (e.g. Acts 4:13: “Now when they saw the boldness [την παρρησίαν] of Peter and John and realized that they were uneducated and ordinary men, they were amazed and recognized them as companions of Jesus.”). It also is used to describe the reply Jesus made to the Pharisees.[1][8][9]